Men who strongly believe that normal rules do not apply to them are more than three times as likely to feel aroused by, or consider committing, non-consensual condom removal, according to new peer-reviewed research. The studies highlight how deep-seated personality traits can help predict this form of sexual violence.
Non-consensual condom removal, widely known as stealthing, occurs when someone secretly removes or damages a condom before or during sex without a partner’s knowledge. Experts stress that this behavior violates consent and exposes victims to risks including sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancy, and long-term emotional harm.
How Entitlement Links To Stealthing
The latest study, published in Psychology, Crime & Law, examined 106 Australian men aged 19 to 68 who completed a 20-minute online survey. Most participants identified as heterosexual and in monogamous relationships. Researchers excluded respondents who failed attention checks or left major sections incomplete.
The researchers assessed 20 early maladaptive schemas, which are deeply rooted patterns of thinking and emotional processing that often develop in childhood when core emotional needs are not met. These schemas can shape how people interpret social situations and may contribute to manipulative or harmful behavior later in life.
Participants also reported past condom-avoidance tactics ranging from persuasion to deception. They then rated their arousal and willingness while reading three hypothetical stealthing scenarios involving secretly removing a condom, intentionally damaging it, or continuing intercourse after a condom slipped off unnoticed.
Men who scored highly on entitlement or grandiosity were substantially more responsive to the stealthing scenarios. They were more than three times as likely to report sexual arousal or say they might engage in the behavior themselves, reinforcing a pattern in which feelings of superiority are used to justify ignoring a partner’s autonomy.
The study also found a strong link between stealthing interest and punitiveness, a schema associated with harsh judgment and beliefs that people should be punished for non-compliance. Researchers suggest this may indicate that some men perceive stealthing as a covert way to retaliate against a partner.
By contrast, men who felt confident about negotiating condom use and using condoms correctly reported lower arousal and less willingness to engage in stealthing. The authors argue that practical sexual health education and communication training may help reduce risk by promoting healthier, consent-based interactions.
Dark Personality Traits And Sexual Coercion
The new findings build on earlier research from the same team published in Psychology & Sexuality. In that study of 221 men, researchers explored how stealthing relates to the so-called dark triad personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy.
Participants again read stealthing scenarios and answered questions about arousal, past behavior, and future likelihood of engaging in non-consensual condom removal. Psychopathy emerged as the strongest predictor of willingness to stealth a partner.
Psychopathy is typically characterized by low empathy, impulsivity, and emotional coldness, traits that align closely with coercive sexual behavior. Narcissism, which involves exaggerated self-importance and a strong need for admiration, also predicted a higher likelihood of considering stealthing.
Researchers say these findings, together with the entitlement and punitiveness results, point toward a broader psychological pattern in which self-focused beliefs and disregard for a partner’s bodily autonomy increase the risk of sexual offending. This suggests prevention efforts should address not only consent knowledge, but also the attitudes and personality traits that may normalize coercive behavior.
Sexual Deception Beyond Stealthing
A related study published in Personality and Individual Differences expanded the focus to sexual deception more broadly. Researchers surveyed 1,769 adults, including men, women, and non-binary participants, about dishonest tactics they had used to obtain sex.
Participants reported whether they had lied about age, income, STI status, or number of previous sexual partners. Men and women admitted to using deceptive tactics at similar overall rates, although they tended to misrepresent different qualities.
Men were more likely to exaggerate income, job status, and physical attractiveness, while both men and women frequently understated their number of previous sexual partners. A concerning proportion of respondents also admitted lying about STI testing, raising public health concerns.
Some sexual minority participants reported concealing their orientation, which researchers suggest may sometimes reflect fear of stigma or discrimination. Across the sample, sexual narcissism and compulsive sexual behavior were associated with higher levels of deception.
Individuals high in sexual narcissism often view their own sexual needs as more important than a partner’s comfort or boundaries. Those with compulsive sexual behavior may experience an intense drive for sexual activity that contributes to rationalizing dishonest or coercive tactics.
Limits Of The Research And Future Directions
All three studies relied on self-reported online surveys, which can introduce bias. Because stealthing and sexual deception are highly stigmatized and, in some places, criminalized, some participants may have minimized or concealed their true behavior and attitudes.
Online recruitment can also increase the risk of inaccurate responses despite the use of attention checks. In addition, the studies used cross-sectional designs, meaning researchers measured personality traits and attitudes at only one point in time, limiting conclusions about cause and effect.
The stealthing studies also involved relatively modest sample sizes, which may restrict how broadly the findings apply. Other factors, including culture, past trauma, or relationship history, may also shape attitudes toward condom use and sexual consent.
Researchers say larger and more diverse longitudinal studies are needed to better understand how these psychological patterns develop and which factors most strongly predict real-world sexual coercion over time.
The authors also recommend using shorter surveys or small financial incentives in future work to improve participation from a broader range of individuals who may not normally volunteer for sensitive research involving sex and consent.
Implications For Prevention And Education
Despite the limitations, the findings point toward clear targets for intervention. Therapists working with individuals who have committed sexual offenses may benefit from focusing on entitlement, grandiosity, punitiveness, and empathy deficits.
On a broader social level, researchers argue that consent education should move beyond basic definitions and address how cultural beliefs about masculinity, sex, and power can contribute to coercive behavior. Teaching healthy communication skills and proper condom negotiation may also reduce risk.
Experts emphasize that reducing stealthing and sexual deception requires both psychological and cultural change. Challenging the beliefs that normalize coercion, while strengthening respect for bodily autonomy and mutual consent, may help support safer and more respectful sexual relationships.
The study on early maladaptive schemas and stealthing was conducted by Andrew Allen, Jonathan Mason, and Tahlia Brown. The dark triad study was authored by Timothy S. P. Cousins, Andrew Allen, and Jonathan Mason, while the broader sexual deception research was carried out by Cory L. Pedersen, Flora Oswald, Devinder Khera, and Kari A. Walton.
